For centuries, people have utilized the pumpkin and its relatives. The pumpkin is native to North America; even before Europeans came the Americas, Native Americans were using them as an important food source. The thick skin of the pumpkin could be peeled, pressed, and made into mats. Strips of flesh could be roasted on the fire and eaten. The seeds could also be cooked and ingested.
When Europeans arrived, they saw how native groups were using the pumpkin and quickly began using it as well. Early colonists also brought with them other traditions that took the use of the pumpkin to a whole new level: Jack-o’-lanterns.
The Jack-o’-lantern
The tradition of using pumpkins as Jack-o’-lanterns came from an old Irish story of Stingy Jack. The story gets long and complicated, but the gist of it is that Jack had tricked the Devil multiple times whereby the devil agreed not to take his soul. So, when Jack ended up dying, the Devil was true to his word. But God decided he shouldn’t be in heaven so his soul remained on the earth. He was given only a hot coal to light his way, which he put into a small, carved turnip or gourd. He was remembered every year when people would carve out members of the cucurbitaceae family (cucurbits) and put them on the doorsteps or window ledges.
When the Europeans discovered American pumpkins, they quickly adapted their tradition with the much larger and easily carved gourd. It also became associated with the festival of Halloween.
Halloween
The traditions associated with Halloween have their roots in the Irish holiday Saween. Saween isn’t a celebration of the Devil or a lord of the dead as some people might think. It was celebrated from the night of October 31st to the evening of November 1st and is most closely related to our modern New Years’ Day. It was a celebration of the year and the harvest. In ancient tradition, carved gourds where put outside the house with coals in them to welcome back dead relatives and warn off Stingy Jack.
“Pumpkin” is just another name for Orange Squash
It’s common for more than one species to be described with the same common name. For instance, the colloquial term “banana” is used for more than one species found throughout the tropics. Most Americans see only one of these species, but there are actually many more. What we call pumpkins are phenotypically orange individuals from the following four species: C. pepo, C. maxima, C. mixta, and C. moschata.
The most difficult concept to grasp, however, is that each of these species has also been domestically bred into different forms to the point that we wouldn’t even call them pumpkins. Zucchinis, for instance, are the same species as the common pumpkin, C. pepo. We wouldn’t mistake a zucchini for a pumpkin would we? Thus, pumpkin is really a term used to describe a characteristically orange, squash-like gourd.
What about Giant Pumpkins?
http://www.youtube.com/watchv=wmHGM0Hwuzo
Giant pumpkins aren’t the same species as the common pumpkin you find every year for sale at Halloween. The species is C. maxima and the largest ones are especially “helped” along. The kind of giant pumpkins that win competitions take special care. First, it is important that the prize pumpkin is getting its supply of nutrients without having to compete with others on the same plant. Thus, once a pumpkin starts, the other flowers are pruned off. But, the pumpkin mania doesn’t stop there.
Special fertilizers are added to the soil and lotions are even rubbed on the outside of the pumpkin. The trick though is to make sure the pumpkins grow fast but not too fast. If they grow too large, too quickly, the pumpkin will cave in on itself.
This fish would make Darwin proud. In fact, the red-lipped batfish is named after him (Ogcocephalus darwini). This unusual fish has a lot of adaptations that make it look and act very un-fish-like. First, its pectoral, pelvic, and anal fins are modified in such a way that it can rest on the sea floor on them. In some cases, it can move on its pectoral and pelvic fins as if it was walking! The second major adaptation is the modified dorsal fin that resembles the lures of the closely related angler fishes.
Here is a short video we made profiling the red-lipped batfish and it’s amazing ability to walk around and capture prey on the sea floor.
Where is the red-lipped batfish found?
The red-lipped batfish is most commonly found around the deep waters of the Galapagos Islands. Similar batfish, such as the rosy-lipped batfish are found around Cocos Island. The habitat range for this batfish is deep waters. Divers may encounter this fish at depths greater than 100 feet, but they are not common. While Carl L. Hubbs (see source below) noted that a few specimens were found in nets in California, but these sightings are highly unusual and may very well be a different, but related, species of batfish.
What does the red-lipped batfish eat?
Like many deep sea fish, red-lipped batfish are voracious carnivores. They use the modified dorsal spine as a lure (called an illicium) to attract prey. It is protected by an elongated snout. In general, they eat mainly small fish, mollusks, and crustaceans such as shrimps and crabs.
How big do they get?
The maximum length of the red-lipped batfish is about 40 cm long.
The Smallest African Hedgehog – A General Description
The African pygmy hedgehog is one of 23 extant (currently living) hedgehogs in the world. Sometimes called the four-toed hedgehog, it is the smallest member of the hedgehog family. The African pygmy hedgehog is covered in tiny, non-barbed spines. These spines are different from the spines on a porcupine as they are permanently embedded in the skin of the animal and are not shed. The movement of these spines is controlled by the contraction of a muscular ‘bag’ called the orbicularis panniculi, and the curling behavior is aided by special morphological adaptations, such as having short, blunt ridges on the vertebrae and a wide pelvis.
Atelerix has a generalized body plan and, like most insectivores, a small brain and a simple gastrointestinal system. They have blunt, broad molars and a relatively low metabolic rate that is attributed to their largely insectivorous diet.
Where is the Four-toed Hedgehog found?
Hedgehogs can be found on the continents of Africa, Asia, and Europe. Atelerix is widely encountered in savanna and steppe zones of equatorial Africa from Senegal to Ethopia and south to the Zambezi River, and it is sporadically found in drier regions of Africa.
They occupy a variety of habitats, including grasslands, woodlands, bush, thickets, plains, agricultural land, and even suburban gardens (they have also been encountered in stables and food storage buildings in suburban areas and areas where livestock are kept, which attract insects). Atelerix prefers elevations at or below 2000 meters and require areas with dry soils; they are not encountered in marshes or dense forests. Important habitat features include a plethora of shelters to choose from (they usually change their resting site each day), including matted grass, leaf litter, rocky crevices, termitaries (termite mounds), or previously-dug burrows. They tend to prefer grassy areas with light undergrowth.
Behavior
The four-toed hedgehog is solitary and only comes together with conspecifics (animals of the same species) during the breeding season. These animals are territorial and will engage in aggressive behavior if their territory is encroached upon. In a territorial attack, the animal will erect the spines around its head and snort, grunt, hiss, and butt heads with the offending individual. Spines are also used as a defensive mechanism when evading predators; the hedgehog’s first line of defense is to roll up into a ball, spines erect at opposing angles forming a protective barrier around the animal. Atelerix has been known to attack predators by erecting its spines and lunging at its attacker.
African pygmy hedgehogs are primarily nocturnal but can be crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk). During extreme weather conditions, they will aestivate (a form of summer hibernation initiated by extreme heat whereby they will go into hiding, lower their metabolic rate, and subsist off of fat reserves until environmental conditions improve).
Vocalizations include a repertoire of snorts, hisses, grunts, and twitters. During courtship, males serenade females with a birdlike call, and she will respond with hisses, snorts, and evasive movements.
Like all hedgehogs, the African pygmy exhibits an interesting behavior known as self-anointing. This curious behavior usually occurs when the animal encounters an irritating substance; the hedgehog forming a bubbly foam substance in its mouth and subsequently rubs the mixture over its spines. One individual was observed chewing the parotid glands of a toad and self-anointing with the toxic mixture (perhaps a defense against predators?). The true reason for self-anointing is still unknown to scientists, but it has been hypothesized that it is used to attract attention, males from females and juveniles from their mother. Although its specific origin is unknown, scientists know that this is an innate (instinctual) behavior as it has been observed in juveniles whose eyes have not yet opened.
Reproduction
African pygmy hedgehogs have no apparent mating season and breed throughout the year. They become sexually mature at approximately one year of age. Gestation lasts 30 to 40 days and litters range in size from two to ten young with females typically having one litter per year. Neonates (babies) are born blind and naked; white spines emerge after two to three days. Between 8 and 18 days, the eyes will open and the white, infant spines are shed and replaced with spines of the adult coloration. At 40 days the young will accompany the mother on foraging trips and will eat increasing amounts of solid foods until they are completely weaned.
What’s on the menu for a hedgehog?
The four-toed hedgehog is an insectivore and primarily eats insects (termites, beetles) and other arthropods (spiders, scorpions, millipedes). They do consume a variety of other foods as well, including invertebrates (snails, earthworms, slugs, land crabs) small vertebrates (snakes, lizards, frogs, young birds, and eggs) and plant material (roots, fruits, fungi). Some have even been observed consuming venomous snakes!
Prey is typically located by sight, scent, and sound and can be located as far as 4 cm deep in the soil. Live prey is snapped up into the mouth and chewed noisily followed by muzzle licking. Larger live prey is shaken to death before consumption. Atelerix will readily consume carrion, and in suburban areas, they have been observed scavenging road killed carcasses.
Conservation Status
The IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) lists the African pygmy hedgehog as “lower risk-least concern.” These animals are common in areas of suitable habitat but not often seen due to their nocturnal habits.
More Resources
Four-toed hedgehogs are common exotic pets and are widely bred in captivity. To learn more about this interesting critter, we encourage you to check out the following link:
This beautiful green tree frog can be seen throughout most of the American South. It is also a popular frog species to keep as pet (some have lasted up to six years in captivity). If you go out at dusk after a rain you can hear their chorus all around. They have a variety of calls to communicate with. To attract a breeding mate, the males have a loud and distinct call to attract a mate. Usually mating will take place after big rains, sometime around late spring or early summer.
We captured these images and the related video in May in Charleston, SC. The frog was found in the water drain of the house in the background of the video. You could hear other frogs in the area calling as well.
Distribution: Where do Green Tree Frog’s live?
The American Green Tree Frog is found around lakes, ponds, swamps, and wetland in the Southeastern US, from Eastern Virginia to Southeast Florida in the East and central Texas to the west. Some have also been observed in Delaware and Maryland.
Green Tree Frogs are also said to have been found around Vancouver Island and some areas of British Columbia. I’ve taken photos of invasive ones in Hawaii as well.
They prefer habitats with plenty of floating debris and vegetation.
General Characteristics
This small tree frog is usually bright green in color, but like many amphibians, the color can vary depending on their surroundings, mood, and temperature. This frog can, however, be easily recognized by its almost white, or pale yellow line running from just under the eye down to its groin.
Diet: What do Green Tree Frogs eat?
These frogs eat all kinds of insects and are often found around outdoor lights at night where insects congregate. In captivity, they will eat crickets, flies, moths, and worms, but they may also need some vitamin supplements.
Vocalizations
Green tree frog vocalizations can be heard most frequently on warm, humid, and overcast nights. They make a series of “quonks” or “queenk-queenk-queenks.” We found this great YouTube video that shows a male green tree frog vocalizing. Notice the inflated throat pouch – known as a vocal sac.
Conservation Status
The American Green Tree Frog is a common frog within their geographic range and is listed as a species of Least Concern on the IUCN list. Frogs are indicator species, though, so any changes in the abundance of frogs like this could indicate habitat degradation.
The Colorado Chipmunk (Tamias quadrivittatus) is a rodent in the squirrel family. Even though most would never mistake it for a squirrel, close observation of its behaviors and running pattern will reveal the similarity.
Description
Colorado chipmunks are medium to large chipmunks. The central dorsal stripe is black and very distinct, and the dark lateral stripes are more reddish brown. White lateral stripes are also usually well defined. In animals with recently molted pelage, the dorsal background color is bright reddish brown paling to orange-buff on the sides. The ventral color is pale gray. Measurements are: total length 200-245 mm; length of tail 90-110 mm; length of hindfoot 31-37 mm; length of ear 20-23 mm; weight 45-90 g.
Common Species: Uinta Chipmunk
A quick search for chipmunks in the west reveals a large number of fairly similar looking species in the genus Tamias. The species most easily mistaken for the Colorado chipmunk is the Uinta chipmunk. Even more difficulty identifying them is that both species can overlap in their home range. The best way to distinguish them is to look at the stripes on the back. Colorado chipmunks have dark stripes that are mostly black while the Uinta chipmunk has stripes that are brownish. Another thing to note is to look for a small dark stripe under the lowest pale stripe – only present in Colorado chipmunks. Finally, if there are distinctive white dots on the ears, you may have a Uinta chipmunk.
One final thing to pay attention to is where in Colorado you are. Uinta chipmunks overlap the range of Colorado chipmunks slightly. In the areas that they overlap, Colorado chipmunks remain in lower elevations, up to about 7,000 feet, while the Uinta chipmunk stays in higher elevations, up to about 12,000 feet.
Colorado Chipmunk Range
The Colorado chipmunk occurs in southern Colorado, where it reaches elevations of 10,500 feet. Its northern and eastern limits are in the Front Range, where it is restricted to the foothills. Along the Front Range, the Colorado chipmunk seems to occur mostly below the 7,000 foot contour.
Habitat
In the foothills and canyons, they occupy rocky, broken terrain in open woodlands and shrublands. They occur in pinyon-juniper woodlands in low elevations and montane forests in higher elevations.
Behavior
Colorado chipmunks are solitary rodents that only get together in the spring during breeding season. The rest of the time they forage for food and form small territories. Foraging is done predominately in the early morning and late afternoon.
The chipmunk call
Colorado chipmunks make small vocalizations as it sways its tail from side to side (unlike the least chipmunk which vocalizes while flicking its tail up and down).
What do these Chipmunks eat?
Chipmunks feed on a variety of food, including seeds and nuts left out in bird feeders. In the wild they feed on seeds, berries, flowers, and other plant material. In lower elevations they feed on juniper “berries” and prickly-pear. They also eat mountain mahogany, currants, wild cherry, and snowberry. It is likely that they’ll eat insects and carrion if available.
Reproduction
Colorado chipmunks in low elevations can have have two separate litters. In the spring, males and females emerge from burrows to mate. Males emerge first followed by the females which are only receptive a few days. After about a month, a female will give birth to 5 to 8 naked baby chipmunks. In 25 days, they will emerge from their dens ¾ the size of an adult. In 40 to 50 days they are weaned from their mothers.
The American Red Squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) is an extremely common squirrel in North America. It should not be confused with the European Red Squirrel which is one of the most common Eurasian squirrels.
American Red Squirrels are found in most areas of the US where conifers are common. In the southern Rockies there is a subspecies that is commonly refered to as the Spruce Squirrel. It is not nearly as red as the squirrels found farther north. In fact, the squirrel highlighted on this page would be considered a Spruce Squirrel (it was filmed at 10,000 feet in the mountains near Fairplay, Colorado).
What preys upon the Red Squirrel?
There are several animals that eat Red Squirrels. While not all predators are found throughout its range, these are a few of the main predators: Coyotes, Bobcats, Canadian Lynx, Great Horned Owls, Northern Goshawks, Red-tailed Hawks, American Crows, Red Foxes, American Marten, Wolves, and Weasels. Yet, it has been reported that predators likely eat few adult squirrels as part of their normal diet.
How long do Red Squirrels live?
Like most squirrels, the American Red Squirrels have high early mortality. Only about 22% of young survive to reach one year of age. One study showed that females that survive to at least one year of age have an average life expectancy of 2.3 years. Maximum ages are usually about eight years for Red Squirrels.
How do Red Squirrels reproduce?
Red Squirrels usually only mate only once a year, and females come into estrus only one day a year. This is what is known as a spontaneous ovulator.
After mating, it takes between 31 and 35 days before the young are born. At that time an average of three or four young are born. They stay with the mother for around 70 days before they venture out on their own. Most females could reproduce at one year of age, but they often wait to reproduce when they are two years old.
References
Layne, J. N. 1954. The biology of the red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus loquax in central New York. Ecological Monographs 24:227-267.
Millar, J. S. 1970. The breeding season and reproductive cycle of the
western red squirrel. Canadian Journal of Zoology 48:471-473.
Lair, H. 1985. Length of gestation in the red squirrel, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus. Journal of Mammalogy 66:809-810.
The West Indian Manatee is a giant, omnivorous aquatic mammal that is a distant relative of elephants and hyraxes. This particular species has at least two recognized subspecies, the Florida Manatee and the Antilles Manatee. A third subspecies in Northeastern Brazil may be universally recognized however as molecular data was collected from Garcia-Rodriguez et al. (1998). This page is based primarily on research from the Florida subspecies as this subspecies has had more research than any other subspecies or manatee species. While this species is technically referred to as the West Indian Manatee, this page often refers to the species as simply as the Manatee or when referring specifically about the Florida subspecies, as the Florida Manatee.
The first thing people notice about the manatee when they first encounter one is its size. The West Indian Manatee (Manatee) can grow to more than 3000 pounds and over 13 feet in length. In some ways, it is easy to see how it could be related to elephants. It has a similar color, grey or grey-brown, and the skin is thick and wrinkled. Manatees use their snouts to dig through sediment. The snout is thick and covered in stiff whiskers on the upper lip.
Behavior
All manatees are gentle, slow-moving animals. Most of their time is spent resting, eating, or traveling. They are usually quite shy and reclusive but may come up to humans if they have had a history of being fed by them.
Manatees have evolved in areas where there are no natural predators and thus have no natural predator evasion behaviors. This makes them easy targets for hunting. One of the West Indian Manatee’s relatives, the Steller’s Sea Cow which lived in the Bering Strait, was decimated by hunting only 27 years after it was discovered by humans.
Sight: The depth perception of a manatee isn’t great. They have very small eyes. However, it has been shown that they can differentiate colors.
Hearing: Manatees can hear very well despite the absence of external ear-lobes.
Communication: Manatees emit sounds that are within human auditory range. They will squeak or squeal when frightened or communicating, particularly between cow and calf.
Breathing: A manatee breathes through its nostrils which are on the upper surface of its snout. When a manatee submerges, their nostrils close tightly. Depending on the amount of activity, a manatee will breath every few minutes.
Habitat: Where are Manatees found?
Manatees can be found in shallow, slow-moving rivers, estuaries, saltwater bays, canals, and coastal areas, particularly where sea-grass beds flourish.
Range: The Florida Manatee is restricted to Florida in the winter months. In the summer, they can be found as far west as Louisiana and as far north as Virginia and the Carolinas. The subspecies of West Indian Manatee known as Antilles Manatee is found in Central and South America as far south as Brazil.
Diet: What do Manatees eat?
Manatees are completely herbivorous and eat aquatic plants. They can eat ten to 15 percent of their body mass in food each day.
Natural History
Manatees are believed to have evolved from wading, plant-eating organisms. They are believed to share a common ancestor with the Elephant and Hyrax.
Abundance: There are approximately 1200 left in the wild.
Reproduction
Female Manatees become reproductively mature when they are five to nine years old and males from six to nine years old. Once pregnant, female manatees have a gestation period of 13 months. They can have one calf every two to five years. Twins are very rare in the wild. The young calf will stay with the mother nursing for two years. After that time they spend another year with the mother.
How long do manatees live? Florida Manatees may live to be more than 60 years old in the wild.
Conservation Efforts
Manatees were listed as endangered species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act of 1973. The US Fish and Wildlife Service recommended in 2007 that the Florida Manatee be reclassified as “threatened” instead of “endangered.” While the Florida Manatee has rebounded, there is controversy because this act takes significant protection off of the manatee. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has recently placed it on their Endangered List (October 2007) because of the low numbers of the breeding population (under 2500) and that the population is estimated to decline by 20 percent in the next 40 years.
Current threats to Florida Manatees are almost all human activities. These threats include loss of habitat, boat propellers that hit the manatees, being crushed or drowned in flood gates, poaching and ingestion of lines and hooks. In addition to direct human threats, many manatees are also affected by natural disasters like hurricanes and red tides.
Related Species: West African Manatee, Dugong, Steller Sea Cow, Amazonian Manatee
Resources
Garcia-Rodriguez, B. W. Bowen, D. Domning, A. A. Mignucci-Giannoni, M. Marmontel, R. A. Montoya-Ospina, B. Moreales-Vela, M. Rudin, R. K. Bonde, and P. M. McGuire (1998). “Phylogeography of the West Indian manatee (Trichechusmanatus): How many populations and how many taxa?”. Molecular Ecology 7: 1137–1149. doi:10.1046/j.1365-294x.1998.00430.x.
In North America, the black bear (Ursus americanus) is the most common species of bear. It is native to the continent and ranges from northern Alaska to Mexico. In fact the black bear is found in 41 of the 50 states in the U.S.A. While the brown bear is Eurasian in origin, the black bear is currently thought to have evolved in North America about two million years ago. Here is quick video clip talking about black bear hibernation. In fact, we helped with a small study with the Michigan DNR.
Life History Characteristics
Black bears are usually solitary animals whose lifestyles are dictated by their biological need to consume large quantities of food. Bears only tolerate the presence of other bears during the breeding season, when a female is with her cubs, or when bears congregate in areas with concentrated food sources such as garbage dumps and salmon streams. Adult male bears are not part of the family unit.
Reproduction
Bears reproduce at a very low rate compared to other North American land mammals. Female black bears usually become sexually mature between the ages of two and seven years. The age of first reproduction varies geographically, depending on the availability of food and the size and condition of the bears. Males (called boars) and females (called sows) may mate with more than one partner. The mating period usually occurs in June or July and lasts from two to five days. During this time, males roam extensively in search of receptive females. Implantation of the fertilized eggs in the uterine wall does not occur until the female is ready to enter the den, usually in October (in northern regions) or November (in central regions). This phenomenon is called delayed implantation. If a female does not gain enough weight before hibernation, her body may reabsorb the eggs.
Birth and Growth of Cubs
Cubs are born in the den during January or February and emerge from the den in April. Litter size can range from one to five cubs, with two-cub litters the most common. Older or heavier black bears often produce more offspring. Newborn cubs weigh seven to 11 ounces (200 to 300 grams). By six weeks of age, cubs weigh about four to seven pounds (two to three kg). Newborn cubs are altricial (helpless at birth). Their eyes are closed, and they are covered with fine, down-like fur. Because bears are mammals, the first meal they receive in life is rich milk from their mothers. Bear cubs grow rapidly because bear milk has a very high fat and protein content. Cubs nurse while they are in the den and may continue nursing through the summer.
Cubs remain with their mothers for about a year and a half. During this time, they learn fundamental skills from their mothers. These early learning experiences shape a cub’s future behavior. Throughout life, bears also learn by trial and error and by observing other bears. Eighteen months after the cubs are born, the family unit breaks up. Cubs, now called yearlings, begin searching for their own home ranges. Female yearlings usually remain within or near their mothers’ home range, but male yearlings must find territories to claim as their own. Dispersal is a difficult and dangerous time. Although black bears have few natural predators, adult male bears will kill and eat yearlings. Since dominant males occupy the best habitats, younger male bears are often pushed into marginal habitats. Frequently, marginal habitats are close to rural homes, towns, or cities. As a result, young male bears have a higher risk of mortality from vehicle collisions, hunting, and negative encounters with humans.
Mortality
Diseases rarely impact black bears. However, dental cavities are common due to their sugar-rich diet. Young or smaller bears are occasionally preyed upon by brown (grizzly) bears, wolves, bobcats, and other black bears. Once bears reach maturity at four to eight years of age, hunting, trapping, poaching, and vehicle collisions are the main causes of death. Vehicle mortality may be higher than reported because bears can sustain mortal injuries and continue to travel considerable distances from roadways. Male bears suffer higher vehicle mortality than females because of their larger home ranges, in combination with their habit of crossing and following roadways. In remote wild areas, black bears can live up to 30 years.
Behavior
Black bears are highly curious, very intelligent, mobile, and adaptable animals. They quickly learn by trial and error, adapting to new stimuli and circumstances. For example, one study indicated that bears near urban/wild land edges were active fewer hours each day, entered their dens later, remained in them for fewer days, and shifted their activities to nocturnal periods. Curious black bears will explore and learn about novel objects in their environment by manipulating them with their forepaws and by chewing. Bears can also learn from other bears; bear cubs learn many behaviors by watching their mother.
Like most animals, black bears exhibit certain behaviors that can sometimes forecast their mood or intentions. A black bear standing on its hind legs is often curious, and is trying to see or hear better. A nervous black bear may salivate excessively. A frightened black bear may run off or act defensively, giving visual and vocal cues such as swatting the ground with its paw or blowing explosively through its nostrils.
Other defensive displays by a bear may include huffing, moaning, jaw popping, or lowering its head with its ears drawn back while facing the danger. Black bears’ metabolic need to eat a year’s worth of food in seven to nine months significantly affects their behavior. Hungry black bears may roam farther than usual in search of food, sometimes beyond the normal range of the species.
Black Bear Populations
In many areas of the county, black bear populations have recovered from historic lows. Beginning in the late 1980s through the start of the 21st century, black bear numbers increased at a rate of two percent a year continent wide. Changes benefiting black bears during this time included reforestation of the landscape, black bear reintroduction programs, and regulations on hunting black bears.
Though black bears have not reclaimed all of their original range across America, they have rebounded to populations of an estimated 800,000 bears in 37 states and all Canadian Provinces. At the same time, human populations have expanded, numerically and geographically. In some areas, these two expanding populations are intersecting. In overlapping habitats, humans can often coexist with black bears. The challenge is to find a balance between the number of black bears a habitat can support, called the biological carrying capacity, and the number of bears the human community will accept, called the cultural carrying capacity.
Coexisting with Black Bears
A key factor in predicting a person’s attitudes towards black bears is his or her perception of how dangerous bears are. Familiarity fosters positive attitudes. In New York State, a 2002 mail survey indicated the majority of residents enjoyed having black bears in the state. Most survey respondents had seen a wild black bear and almost all perceived it as a positive experience. Negative attitudes towards black bears are often related to concerns for personal safety, reactions to bear damage to crops or property, and beliefs centering on real or perceived competition for game and habitat.
Human behaviors that can benefit black bear populations include habitat restoration and conservation programs, land use planning to limit habitat fragmentation, research and management programs, and wildlife education programs. Human behaviors that negatively affect black bears include feeding bears, harassing bears, land development in “bear country,” human activities that reduce natural bear food sources, and management strategies that affect other wildlife species that compete for resources (i.e. White-tailed deer).
Subspecies of Black Bear:
There are several different subspecies of black bear including the Cinnamon Bear, Glacier Bear, and Kermode Bear. The following list describes some of the accepted subspecies.
Ursus americanus altifrontalis
This subspecies lives in the Pacific NW from central BC to northern Cal and inland to Northern Idaho.
Ursus americanus amblyceps
Found in CO, NM, AZ, west TX, southeaster Utah and northern Mexico.
Ursus americanus americanus
This subspecies is widespread from eastern MT to the east coast. Its found as far north as Alaska and south to TX.
Ursus americanus californiensis
This California bear is found in the mountains from southern Oregon to southern CA.
Ursus americanus carlottae
The Queen Charlotte Black Bear is found on the Queen Charlotte Islands and the Alaska mainland.
Ursus americanus cinnamomum
The Cinammon Bear is found in ID, western MT, WY, eastern WA, northeastern UT and OR.
Ursus americanus emmonsii
Found in southeastern AK
Ursus americanus eremicus
Lives in northeastern Mexico
Ursus americanus floridanus
In the south this bear ranges from FL, southern Georgia to Alabama.
The Kermode Bear lives on the central coast of British Columbia
Ursus americanus luteolus
Found natively in eastern TX, LA, and southern MS
Ursus americanus machetes
Native to north-central Mexico
Ursus americanus perniger
Native to the Kenai Pennisula, AK
Ursus americanus pugnax
Found on the Alexander Archipelago in AK
Ursus americanus vancouveri
Bear History
Before Columbus
When humans first entered North America some 15,000 years ago, bears inhabited every corner of the continent. The grizzly bear thrived in all western states, ranging as far south as Mexico and as far north as the tip of Alaska. Related to the grizzly bear, but with certain behavioral, morphological, and physiological differences, the smaller black bear roamed North America from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Mexico to the northern edges of the continent. To Native Americans, the black bear provided a valuable source of thick hides for clothing and shelter, rich meat, and sweet fat. The unique traits of the bear itself provided the essence of their legends. Native Americans pass on these legends through an oral tradition called storytelling. These stories teach the young, pass on a tribe’s rituals and beliefs, safeguard history, and entertain the listeners. Some stories describe how an animal acquired a physical characteristic while others tell about the animal’s relationships with people or other wildlife.
Pioneers Arrive
Early American settlers found black bears in abundance when they arrived, but the bears represented more than a food source to early pioneers. Settlers brought with them European perceptions and behaviors; wilderness was viewed as threatening, as were the wild animals living in it. Bounties placed on predators became common, such as the one-penny bounty for a dead wolf in Massachusetts Bay Colony. To the settlers, bears posed threats to their families, livestock, crops, and future. This attitude surfaced in popular nature books of that time which showed animals such as bears attacking hunters or eagles flying off with children. Settlers did not just kill bears with their guns. Cutting, burning and clearing changed the wooded lands into open farm fields and pastures. As the wave of humans expanded, black bears lost much of their native habitat, restricting their populations to some of the more mountainous, swampy, and rugged regions of North America.
Conservation Awakens
The few black bears that remained in the mid 1800s came under the pressure of unregulated market hunting for their hides, meat, and fat. Due to their low reproductive rate, bears recover more slowly from population losses than other North American mammals. By 1900, black bear numbers dwindled in many areas of the country, nearing the point of extinction. Eventually, America began to realize the importance of wildlife management, including the plight of the black bear. By the mid-1900s, hunting seasons became heavily controlled, or closed altogether, and bear restoration programs began in some states. Meanwhile, the forests that had been cut and burned decades before began to grow again in many areas. As bear habitat increased, so did black bear numbers.
Beginning in the late 1980s through the start of the twenty-first century, black bear numbers increased at a rate of two percent per year continent-wide, with some states such as New Jersey and Maryland reporting a five-fold increase. Though black bears have not reclaimed all of their original range across North America, their populations have rebounded to an estimated 800,000 bears in 37 states and Canada. Additionally, more states report black bears inhabiting areas they have not roamed for almost 100 years.
Hibernation
A Hibernation Overview
Hibernators prepare for winter by locating bedding sites and, in some cases, by stashing food. Some animals (e.g., woodchucks and ground squirrels) hibernate in a deep sleep. They are considered true hibernators because their body temperatures are only slightly higher than their surroundings. These hibernators are also very difficult to awaken and may appear dead. This state of torpor lasts five to seven months. Due to their high surface-to-mass body ratio, small hibernators cool fairly quickly, so they periodically warm up by moving around, eating, and passing wastes.
Black Bear Hibernation
Although black bears are not considered true hibernators because they do not enter a state of torpor, some scientists consider them super hibernators. During hibernation, they do not drink, eat, defecate, or urinate. Unlike true hibernators, the core body temperature of black bears – the temperature of the internal organs in the chest cavity, abdominal region, and head – does not differ markedly from their normal body temperature of 100 to 101°F (37.7 – 38.3°C).
Black bears primarily hibernate to conserve energy during winter’s food shortages. To prepare for hibernation, they gorge on food in the fall. This process of eating large amounts of food, called hyperphagia, builds their reserves of brown and white fat. White fat insulates the body and is metabolized to fuel bodily processes. Bears convert the chemical energy stored in their brown fat into heat to keep them warm. While hibernating, black bears recycle the nitrogen in their urine to build new proteins. Black bears can lose up to 45 percent of their body weight during hibernation, but most of this loss is in the form of fat.
Although black bear dens can offer protection from predators and the elements, the temperature inside a bear den does not vary noticeably from outside temperatures. Black bear dens also offer a fairly safe environment for females to birth and suckle their helpless young. During hibernation, black bears may become active and briefly leave their den area. Black bears usually do not reuse their dens from year to year. Hibernation can last for up to seven months in the northern regions of North America, although black bears in the southern United States may enter their dens later and hibernate for shorter periods of time. If enough food is available in southern regions, some black bears may not hibernate at all.
Adaptations
Like all animals, black bears exhibit specific adaptations that help them survive in their habitats. Black bears are scientifically classified in the order Carnivora because they have canine teeth. However, unlike other members of this order (such as wolves, foxes, and cats) black bears are not efficient predators. They lack the sharp molars and premolars of true carnivores. Their massive body structure with thick legs, enormous shoulders, and a short back, are designed for strength and power rather than for speed for catching prey. Although they can run swiftly over short distances, reaching speeds of up to 30 miles per hour, black bears quickly overheat due to their large size.
Like coyotes and raccoons, black bears function as omnivores. Plants comprise up to 95 percent of their diet. However, their digestive tracts lack caecums and rumens, organs found in herbivores such as deer. Therefore, black bears’ food moves quickly through their digestive systems. Much of the plant fiber is undigested, so fewer nutrients are removed. Black bears solve this problem by eating huge quantities of food, especially before hibernation. They also selectively forage (search for food) for easily digestible plants with concentrated nutrients (e.g., fruits and nuts). Black bears also have prehensile (detached) lips. This adaptation enables them to pluck berries from shrubs and trees.
Feet also provide clues to an animal’s lifestyle. A black bear’s long, curved claws help them climb tree trunks to reach nuts, seeds, and leaves; rip open logs and insect mounds; and overturn rocks to scavenge for insects. Like humans, they have plantigrade feet. The structure of the foot allows plantigrade species to place their entire foot on the ground during each stride; this improves balance. This broad base of support allows humans to easily walk upright. It also permits bears to stand upright briefly to improve their ability to see and hear. Bears also may stand to claw tree trunks or fence posts, or to display aggression against other bears. Plantigrade species are slower moving animals. In contrast, digitigrade species like dogs and cats walk on the entire length of their toes, with the heel raised. This allows for faster motion. Unguligrade species such as deer and horses walk on their tiptoes.
Little research is available on the extent of black bears’ sight and hearing, but evidence suggests that bears may have the keenest sense of smell in the animal world. Bears’ exceptional noses are used to locate mates, detect and avoid danger, and find food. When searching for prey, bears primarily rely on their sense of smell and hearing. A combination of smell and sight are often used to locate nuts, berries, and other plant foods.
Foraging Adaptations
Black bears have their own unique set of food-gathering adaptations. Foraging as omnivores, black bears readily eat both plant and animal matter. Although 75 to 95 percent of their diet consists of plant material, black bears lack some of the adaptations of herbivores. They cannot efficiently digest much of the plant fiber they eat.
Natural foods commonly eaten by black bears include nuts, fruits and berries, crayfish, frogs, honey, mushrooms, seeds, ants, bees, beetles, eggs, cambium (tree under bark), carrion, fish, grasses, and herbs. Black bears often locate a food source with their keen sense of smell. They also use their eyes and ears to locate food. Their curved claws and heavy muscle structure help them climb trees to feed on nuts, fruits, and leaves; rip open tree stumps in search of honey; and overturn logs to reach insects. Both claws and teeth are used to capture and eat fish.
Diet
Black bear diets vary seasonally. When they emerge from their dens in spring, black bears forage primarily on grasses and insects. They also feed on carrion (dead animal matter). They may lose weight during this time.
During late spring through late summer, bears eat mostly fruits, or soft mast. This soft mast diet may include blackberries, pokeberries, wild cherries, sassafras berries, blueberries, and other berries. They supplement their diet during the summer with higher protein insects. Through late summer and fall, black bears forage primarily on tree nuts, or hard mast. This hard mast commonly includes hickory nuts, beechnuts, hazelnuts, and a variety of acorns. The amount and type of nuts varies considerably each year by location and season. Black bears depend on acorns in many areas of the country, while beechnuts are the primary hard mast in parts of the Northeast.
These high-energy mast foods are essential to black bears in the fall. The high-fat content of nuts helps black bears build up body fat to prepare them for winter hibernation. Availability of fall foods can influence black bears’ reproductive success, habitat use, home range, movement patterns, and ultimately survival. During fall feeding, black bears may gain 100 pounds or more before going into their winter dens.
Natural food shortages can result from failure of berry and hard mast crops due to early frosts or drought, habitat loss due to development, and competition with other bears due to an increase in population. When there is a shortage in natural food sources, black bears must range farther to find the food they need to survive. By late summer and early fall, hungry bears may start to wander closer to humans in search of food. Being opportunistic feeders, they may seek out farm crops, birdseed, pet food, foods placed in compost bins, honey from managed beehives, and livestock. Young male bears driven into marginal habitats by older, dominant bears are the most likely to venture too close to humans.
The blunt-nosed sixgill shark (often referred to as the six-gilled shark) is larger than any of the other 5 shark species in the order hexacanthiformes, reaching lengths of more than 18 feet.
Distribution and Habitat
The blunt-nosed sixgill shark has a near circumglobal distribution in tropical and temperate waters. However, as it has never been recorded in the extreme deep ocean it is assumed that these sharks require continental shelfs where they can move up and down during the course of a day. This restricts the coastline that the shark is found in. We’ve mapped the areas where the species has been recorded in the distribution map above.
This sixgill shark is known to move up into shallower water to feed at night. During the day it takes refuge in the dark ocean in depths up to 2,500 meters (8,200 feet). The species is also highly migratory and not restricted to a home range.
What do Sixgill Sharks Eat?
Sixgill sharks tend to feed on a wide range of marine organisms. While it readily eats dead pig and horse carcasses from the submarine, its likely to also feed on other sharks, rays, chimeras, bony fish, squids, crabs, shrimp, and even seals. Most of its hunting is likely done in the night.
Life History and Reproduction
Sixgill sharks, as with several other sharks are ovoviviparous, meaning that the mother retains the eggs within her body. The eggs will hatch in her brood chamber, and the young receive nourishment from their yolk sac. They are then born alive.
The gestation time for these sharks is believed to be around 2 years. At that time the mother gives birth to litters ranging from around 22 to 108 pups. These pups emerge at around 60 to 75 cm.
How big are sixgill sharks?
These sharks tend to show a small degree of sexual dimorphism. Female sixgills are much larger with an average size of around 3.5 to 4.2 meters. Males are on average 3.1 to 3.3 meters in length. The largest individuals are upwards of 5.5 meters.
Where can I see sixgill sharks?
In our research and filming trips we have discovered that finding sixgill sharks is extremely rare. However, the following places are your best bets to find sixgill sharks.
Our Sixgill shark Experience
More Six-gilled Shark Videos
This short piece was shot with on Karl Stanley’s submarine for a
This shark footage was taken in Hawaii by researchers on a submarine at 3,300 feet. They have a pair of lasers that can help show the size of the shark. They estimate 18 feet, but this is way to large if you look at the video.
Geranium sylvaticum (wood cranesbill or woodland geranium) is a species of hardy flowering herbaceous perennial plant in the genus Geranium, Geraniaceae family. It grows to 24 inches, producing flowers ranging from mauve to sky blue depending on soil conditions.
